本文選題：疫病　切入點(diǎn)：明清時(shí)期　出處：《華中師范大學(xué)》2016年博士論文　論文類(lèi)型：學(xué)位論文

【摘要】：“疫災(zāi)”是疫病災(zāi)害的簡(jiǎn)稱,疫病與環(huán)境之間存在著非常密切的關(guān)系。本文分析明清時(shí)期兩湖地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)疫災(zāi)流行概況、特點(diǎn)、原因。而兩湖地區(qū)地貌類(lèi)型復(fù)雜,不同地貌下的經(jīng)濟(jì)、人口方面存在差異,故該地區(qū)疫災(zāi)的流行具有區(qū)域差異的特點(diǎn)。因此擬將兩湖地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)流行特點(diǎn)按照平丘地區(qū)和山岳地區(qū)分開(kāi)研究。并試圖以社會(huì)史的角度來(lái)論述政府(包括朝廷及地方官府)、地方勢(shì)力(包括紳士、富戶及慈善組織)和民眾在疫災(zāi)爆發(fā)時(shí)采取的不同應(yīng)對(duì)措施。明清期間兩湖地區(qū)疫災(zāi)十分頻繁,平丘地區(qū)疫災(zāi)趨勢(shì)在某段時(shí)期集中,如集中分布于1580、1640、1700、1720、1830年代,而山岳地區(qū)疫災(zāi)較平緩。明末1580、1640年代,平丘地區(qū)在“小冰期”影響下,氣候變寒冷干燥,旱災(zāi)頻發(fā),從而發(fā)生嚴(yán)重疫災(zāi)。相反,清代1700、1720、1830年代,兩湖地區(qū)氣候溫暖濕潤(rùn),降水集中,加上平原地區(qū)的垸田開(kāi)發(fā)和山岳地區(qū)的盲目開(kāi)發(fā),洪澇災(zāi)害頻發(fā),從而造成了嚴(yán)重的疫災(zāi)。此外,通過(guò)分析個(gè)別年份的病種,1640年代鼠疫(bubonic plague)猖獗于華北地區(qū),隨后擴(kuò)散至河北、河南、山東,甚至江南地區(qū)。根據(jù)疫病死亡率、鼠群的移動(dòng)及死亡、氣候與鼠蚤關(guān)系、李自成與張獻(xiàn)忠起義的移動(dòng)徑路等來(lái)推斷,在兩湖平丘地區(qū)流行的疫災(zāi)很有可能是鼠疫。另外,關(guān)于1832年發(fā)生的疫災(zāi),1820年代霍亂傳入中國(guó),并在1821年前后形成全國(guó)范圍的流行(以江南地區(qū)和河北平原最為廣泛),據(jù)當(dāng)時(shí)貿(mào)易、水災(zāi)導(dǎo)致的狀況及高死亡率,不能排除霍亂的可能性�？傊�,明清時(shí)期平丘地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)主要是由自然災(zāi)害引起的,而與中國(guó)其他地區(qū)又有密切的聯(lián)系。與平丘地區(qū)相反,山岳地區(qū)地理環(huán)境因素對(duì)疫病流行的影響很大。因該區(qū)森林密布,“瘴氣”盛行,為地方性疫病(如瘧疾)的流行打下基礎(chǔ),而大規(guī)模的皇木采辦及民眾濫伐森林,則直接導(dǎo)致了疫病的流行。隨著山林的不斷開(kāi)發(fā),地方性疫病逐漸減少,但由于生態(tài)破壞,進(jìn)入清代,水災(zāi)頻發(fā),從而導(dǎo)致的疫災(zāi)次數(shù)大大增加了。另外,山岳地區(qū)的盜寇侵犯、荊襄起義、苗族起義、張獻(xiàn)忠與李自成農(nóng)民軍、王朝叛亂(吳三桂、金聲桓的反清活動(dòng))、白蓮教起義等各種動(dòng)亂持續(xù)不斷。盜賊侵犯、動(dòng)亂頻繁,對(duì)于該地區(qū)疫病發(fā)生有深刻的影響。明清時(shí)期,該地區(qū)隨著外來(lái)人口的增加,與外界交流日益頻繁,天花、霍亂這樣的疫病開(kāi)始傳入,由此引發(fā)了多次大規(guī)模的疫災(zāi)�？傊�,山岳地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)與地理環(huán)境、戰(zhàn)亂及人口流動(dòng)等因素有關(guān)。從對(duì)疫災(zāi)的應(yīng)對(duì)來(lái)看,由于明清時(shí)期平丘與山岳地區(qū)之間疫災(zāi)成因不同,所以政府、社會(huì)力量和民眾都會(huì)采取不同的應(yīng)對(duì)措施。已有研究已經(jīng)表明明清兩朝對(duì)疫災(zāi)采取比較消極的措施,但考慮到政府對(duì)一般水旱災(zāi)害采取比較積極的措施,而平丘地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)發(fā)生原因是水旱災(zāi)害,山岳地區(qū)則有所不同。另外,兩湖平丘地區(qū)為全中國(guó)的“糧倉(cāng)”,經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)達(dá)。因此,可以推測(cè)政府對(duì)兩湖平原和山岳地區(qū)采取不同的態(tài)度,發(fā)生水旱災(zāi)害時(shí)對(duì)平丘地區(qū)賑災(zāi)更多,對(duì)因自然災(zāi)害而產(chǎn)生的疫災(zāi)自然也有附加的防治效果。而且,地方紳士和一些社會(huì)組織都以各自的方式展開(kāi)救療活動(dòng),在一定程度上彌補(bǔ)了官方救助的不足,尤其是在官府對(duì)于基層社會(huì)的作用日益削弱的情況下,地方紳士很大程度上承擔(dān)了救濟(jì)災(zāi)民的角色。另外,民眾的對(duì)應(yīng)方面,因?yàn)橄嗤臅r(shí)代的背景下,雖然與山岳地也有相似之處。平丘地區(qū)疫災(zāi)與自然災(zāi)害有關(guān),自然信仰多。并且城隍信仰等官方認(rèn)可的信仰非常普遍,或者通過(guò)對(duì)神靈崇拜的官方化,將民間祈神驅(qū)病等活動(dòng)控制在官紳的主導(dǎo)之下。因此,平丘地區(qū)的許多民間信仰對(duì)于穩(wěn)定社會(huì)秩序,維持政府的統(tǒng)治有著極大的幫助。與之相對(duì)應(yīng),明清時(shí)期兩湖山岳地區(qū)(尤其湘南地區(qū)),被認(rèn)為是“蠻荒之地”、“瘴氣之地”,存在著地域偏見(jiàn)與民族歧視的文化概念,經(jīng)常將該區(qū)作為貶官之地。此外,由于地理特殊性和戰(zhàn)亂的原因,這里經(jīng)常爆發(fā)疫災(zāi),但對(duì)政府而言,控制一個(gè)地區(qū)的穩(wěn)定是最重要的,救災(zāi)則是其次,因此對(duì)山岳地區(qū)的疫災(zāi)非但幾乎沒(méi)有救助活動(dòng),疫災(zāi)流行反而會(huì)成為政府鎮(zhèn)壓戰(zhàn)亂的機(jī)會(huì)。因此山岳地區(qū)不能經(jīng)常得到政府的救濟(jì)而無(wú)法采取合適的措施以應(yīng)對(duì)疫病。而且地方官員及地方力量得救助也有限。沒(méi)有救助情況下,山岳地區(qū)民間信仰非常盛行,尤其巫術(shù)崇拜廣泛蔓延,而且民間宗教也利用巫術(shù)與疫災(zāi)夸張教勢(shì)。反抗統(tǒng)治階級(jí)的活動(dòng)中常常借用迷信和巫術(shù)的手段,因此山岳地區(qū)的民間信仰不利于國(guó)家統(tǒng)治。
[Abstract]:"Epidemic disease disaster" is referred to, there is a very close relationship between disease and environment. This paper analyzes the causes of Hunan and Hubei during the Ming and Qing Dynasties epidemic plague epidemic situation, characteristics, and types of landforms. Hubeiandhunan complex under different landforms of the economy, there are differences in population, so the area of plague epidemic it has regional difference characteristics. Therefore intends to plague epidemic characteristics in the area of Hunan and Hubei plain and hilly area and mountain area in accordance with the separate study. And try to discuss the government from the perspective of social history (including the imperial court and the local government), local forces (including the gentleman, the rich and charitable organizations) of different measures and people in disease at the outbreak of the plague epidemic area of Hunan and Hubei during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Very frequent, plain and hilly area of epidemic disaster tendency in a certain period, such as concentrated in the 15801640170017201830 era, and mountain areas of epidemic disaster was gentle. Ming At the end of 15801640s, the flat hill area in the "Little Ice Age" under the influence of cold and dry climate change, drought prone, resulting in serious epidemic disaster. On the contrary, the Qing Dynasty in 170017201830s, Hunan and Hubei area of warm and humid climate, rainfall concentration, blind development in plain areas coupled with the development of wetland and mountain areas, flood disasters, and caused a serious epidemic. In addition, through the analysis of individual year disease, 1640s (bubonic plague) on the rampant plague in North China, then spread to Hebei, Henan, Shandong, and the south region. According to the disease death rate and death, mobile mouse group, the relationship between climate and fleas, mobile Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong uprising the path to infer, in plain and hilly area of popular lakes epidemic is likely to plague. In addition, on 1832 the epidemic of cholera in 1820s, and the incoming China, formed in 1821 after the Popular (in the area south of the Yangtze River and Hebei plain is the most widely used), according to the trade situation, flooding and high mortality of cholera, the possibility cannot be ruled out. In short, flat hill area in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the epidemic is mainly caused by natural disasters, and other areas China are closely linked. Contrary to Ping Qiu a large area, the geographical environment of mountain area factors of epidemic disease. Because of the dense forest, "miasma" prevalent for local diseases (such as malaria) lay the foundation of the epidemic, and large-scale timber procurement and public deforestation, lead directly to the epidemic disease. With the continuous development of the mountains, where of the disease gradually decreased, but because of ecological destruction, in the Qing Dynasty, floods, resulting in the number of epidemic disaster greatly increased. In addition, the mountain area of the invasion, Jingxiang uprising, Miao uprising, Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng farmer In the dynasty, the rebellion (Wu Sangui, Kim Shenghuan anti Qing activities), and other troubled white lotus uprising continued. Thieves violated, frequent unrest in the region, the disease occurrence has a profound impact. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the region with the increase of the foreign population, increasingly frequent exchanges with the outside world of smallpox, cholera, the disease started incoming, resulting in many large-scale epidemics. In short, the mountain area of epidemic disaster and geographical environment, the factors related to the war and the floating population. From the epidemic disaster response, the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the area between the plain and hilly mountain epidemic causes different, so the government, social forces and people will take different the existing measures. Studies have shown that during the two dynasties take negative measures of epidemic disaster, but considering the government to take more active measures of flood and drought disasters, and the flat hill area of epidemic disaster occurrence reason is Flood and drought disasters, mountain areas is different. In addition, Hunan and Hubei area for the whole Chinese Ping Qiu's "granary", the economy developed. Therefore, the government can speculate in Jianghan Plain and mountain area to take a different attitude, the event of floods and droughts in plain and hilly area of disaster relief more, due to natural disasters of natural epidemic disaster there are additional control effect. Moreover, the local gentry and social organizations have launched rescue activities in their own way, to a certain extent, make up for the lack of official assistance, especially in the government for basic social role is weakened under the condition of the local gentry largely assumed the role of victims. In addition for the public, because of the same age, although there are also similarities to mountain area. Ping Qiu epidemic disaster and natural disasters, natural faith. And the worship of the other official 鐨勪俊浠伴潪甯告櫘閬，

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