本文選題：清末 + 文官制度　； 參考：《蘇州大學(xué)》2016年博士論文

【摘要】：清末文官制度變革是在清末新政和預(yù)備立憲的宏大背景下進(jìn)行的。清末朝廷對傳統(tǒng)文官制度進(jìn)行變革,在形式上,是為了配合清末新政和預(yù)備立憲工作的深入開展;在實(shí)質(zhì)上,則是為了走向近代世界和實(shí)行開明專制,這也是清末預(yù)備立憲何以從官制改革“入手”的根本原因。當(dāng)然,其他因素對清末文官制度變革也產(chǎn)生了重要影響。譬如,舊有文官制度缺陷所致變革思潮的推助以及客觀實(shí)踐的引領(lǐng)等因素,對引起清末文官制度變革也產(chǎn)生了重要影響。清末文官選拔制度之變革,始于清末科舉制度變革。作為清代選拔人才的主要途徑,科舉制度的地位和作用非常突出。至清末時(shí)期,由于科舉本身存有的制度缺陷,使其遭遇到了非常明顯的制度性困境。為能選拔出符合當(dāng)時(shí)經(jīng)濟(jì)社會發(fā)展需要的有用人才,清廷開始著手對傳統(tǒng)科舉制度進(jìn)行變革。但變革的步伐未能跟上時(shí)人的主觀假想,且在清末重臣的勸進(jìn)下,清廷最終決定停廢科舉。在決定停廢科舉前,其實(shí)清廷就已開始仿照近代西方文官考試制度,以著手構(gòu)建符合自身需求的新式文官選拔制度。清末時(shí)期,新式文官選拔制度主要包括學(xué)堂選官制度、游學(xué)生選官制度、議員選舉制度、司法官考選制度等。當(dāng)然,在構(gòu)建新式文官選拔制度時(shí),清廷也刻意保留了部分傳統(tǒng)文官選拔制度規(guī)范。譬如,保留了捐納、貢生、蔭生等傳統(tǒng)文官選拔制度規(guī)范。清末時(shí)期,由于文官出現(xiàn)了立法、行政、司法類別的分野,于此,清末文官候用人員類別也發(fā)生了顯著變化。為使文官任用更符合近代文官制度發(fā)展規(guī)律,清末朝廷對清代傳統(tǒng)官缺制度作出了重大變革。其中,官缺不分滿漢及單一化設(shè)置是其變革的重大成果。隨之,清廷在移植并吸納了近代西方文官制度中的官等制度合理內(nèi)核的基礎(chǔ)上,創(chuàng)設(shè)了新式官等制度,并致清末文官任用權(quán)限結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生了顯著變化。清末時(shí)期,傳統(tǒng)文官的“補(bǔ)缺”規(guī)范也出現(xiàn)了顯著變革,不僅在文官的升補(bǔ)和調(diào)補(bǔ)規(guī)范方面發(fā)生了變化,州縣官的任用規(guī)范更是發(fā)生了重大變革。與此同時(shí),清末文官回避制度和分發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)制度也發(fā)生了重大變革。文官的權(quán)利和義務(wù)是文官制度內(nèi)的重要規(guī)范內(nèi)容。在清代,傳統(tǒng)文官所享有的權(quán)利更多的是集中在經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的權(quán)益上。譬如,文官享有俸祿、公費(fèi)和役食權(quán)等。而文官的義務(wù)更多地是體現(xiàn)在為皇權(quán)服務(wù)方面。譬如,忠君、不得擅權(quán)的義務(wù)等。清季最后十年,由于國家政體的逐步轉(zhuǎn)型,且皇權(quán)在一定程度上也受到了制約,文官權(quán)利與義務(wù)就相應(yīng)地發(fā)生了一定程度上的變化。在文官權(quán)利方面,單就薪俸制度而言,由于國家政體逐步改變,清代傳統(tǒng)俸祿制度開始向近代化邁進(jìn),這主要體現(xiàn)在按勞取酬原則的基本確定上,即職務(wù)薪俸制度開始確立。從總體上看,清末文官的權(quán)利內(nèi)容雖有所擴(kuò)展,但仍過偏狹,文官權(quán)利并未得到系統(tǒng)的法律保障。在義務(wù)方面,清末時(shí)期文官義務(wù)大致上與清代傳統(tǒng)文官義務(wù)相類似,但有些義務(wù)內(nèi)容卻出現(xiàn)了較大變化。對文官政務(wù)行為進(jìn)行考核與監(jiān)督,無論是在近現(xiàn)代抑或古代,各國統(tǒng)治者均極為重視,清代也不例外。清末時(shí)期,由于國家機(jī)構(gòu)至少在形式上分立為立法、行政、司法三種類型。所以,清末時(shí)期的文官考核和監(jiān)督制度隨之也呈現(xiàn)出了理論上的新特點(diǎn)。嚴(yán)格意義上講,清末時(shí)期,除文官的京察、大計(jì)以及都察院的監(jiān)察制度仍然存在外,還初步出現(xiàn)了準(zhǔn)代議機(jī)關(guān)、司法行政機(jī)關(guān)等對文官行為進(jìn)行監(jiān)督的制度。毫不夸張地說,至清末時(shí)期,清代傳統(tǒng)的文官考核和監(jiān)督制度已開始發(fā)生“質(zhì)變”。這種“質(zhì)變”可體現(xiàn)在文官考核與科道監(jiān)察制度變革、準(zhǔn)代議機(jī)關(guān)監(jiān)督制度、司法行政機(jī)關(guān)對審判機(jī)關(guān)之監(jiān)督等諸多方面。清末時(shí)期,清廷對文官獎勵和懲戒制度也進(jìn)行了多方面的變革。在獎勵方面,有清一代,對文官的獎勵規(guī)范十分豐富,但核心集中在文官的獎敘制度上。清末時(shí)期,隨著文官制度的變革,文官獎勵制度也在固守傳統(tǒng)的基礎(chǔ)上,發(fā)生了變化。清季最后十年,清廷根據(jù)朝臣的建議,正式頒行了各項(xiàng)勛章章程。自此,源自西方的勛章制度正式在古老的中華帝國“落地”。在懲戒制度方面,按舊例,清代文官的懲戒主要分為行政懲戒和司法懲戒兩大類。清末時(shí)期,文官的懲戒制度在類型上已發(fā)生變化,不僅保留了既有的行政懲戒和司法懲戒制度,還出現(xiàn)了糾彈、訴愿、行政訴訟等近代文官懲戒制度之雛形。以后見分析,清末文官制度變革的參照系就是近代西方文官制度。清廷移植近代西方文官制度之直接目的,就是為了彌補(bǔ)自身傳統(tǒng)文官制度的缺陷,進(jìn)而以實(shí)現(xiàn)吸納先進(jìn)、齊一法制的主觀愿望。但在變革傳統(tǒng)文官制度的過程中,清廷也刻意保留了部分傳統(tǒng)文官制度規(guī)范,而保留的目的則是為了維護(hù)“本體”。從總體上看,變革后的清末文官制度當(dāng)屬近代文官制度范疇。在留存下來的為數(shù)不多的遺產(chǎn)中,清末文官制度變革的主要成果,在損益的基礎(chǔ)上,還是被民國歷屆政府給承繼了下來�？梢哉f,清末文官制度變革既有成功之處,也有諸多教訓(xùn)。當(dāng)回望并總結(jié)清末文官制度變革時(shí),我們可發(fā)現(xiàn)其雖有諸多方面值得今人反思,但也仍有諸多“資源”以供今人吸收和借鑒。
[Abstract]:The reform of the civil service system in the late Qing Dynasty was carried out under the grand background of the new policy and the preparation of the Constitution in the late Qing Dynasty. The imperial court in the late Qing Dynasty changed the traditional civil service system in order to cooperate with the new deal in the late Qing Dynasty and the preparatory constitutional work; in essence, it was in order to move towards the modern world and carry out the enlightened despotism, which was also prepared in the late Qing Dynasty. The fundamental reason for the constitution to start with the reform of the bureaucracy. Of course, other factors have also had an important influence on the reform of the civil service system at the end of the Qing Dynasty. For example, the reasons for the change of ideological reform and the guidance of the objective practice caused by the defects of the old civil service system have also had an important influence on the change of the civil service system in the late Qing Dynasty. The change of degree began in the reform of the imperial examination system at the end of the Qing Dynasty. As the main way to select talents in the Qing Dynasty, the status and role of the imperial examination system was very prominent. To the late Qing Dynasty, due to the institutional defects of the imperial examination itself, it encountered a very obvious institutional dilemma. The Qing court began to change the traditional imperial examination system. But the pace of change failed to keep up with the subjective imagination of the people, and in the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing government finally decided to stop the imperial examination. Before deciding to stop the imperial examination, the Qing government began to imitate the modern western civil examination system, in order to set up a new style that conforms to its own needs. In the late Qing Dynasty, the new style of civil service selection system mainly included the school selection system, the system of selecting officials, the election system of the members of the members, the system of the examination and selection of the judicial officers, etc.. Of course, in the construction of a new civil service selection system, the Qing court also reserved the standard of the traditional civil service selection system. In the late Qing Dynasty, there had been a significant change in the category of civil servants in the late Qing Dynasty. In order to make the appointment of civil servants more consistent with the law of the development of modern civil service, the imperial court made great changes to the system of official official deficiency in the Qing Dynasty in the late Qing Dynasty. On the basis of the transplantation and absorption of the rational kernel of the official system in modern western civil service, the Qing government created a new system of officials and other systems, and resulted in a significant change in the structure of the appointing authority in the late Qing Dynasty. Significant changes have taken place not only in the regulation of civil servants' promotion and supplement, but also in the appointment norms of state magistrates. At the same time, great changes have taken place in the civil service and distribution learning system in the late Qing Dynasty. The rights and obligations of civil officials are important norms within the civil service system. The right to enjoy more is to focus on the economic rights and interests. For example, civil officials enjoy the salary, the public fee and the right to eat, and so on. And the civil duty is more embodied in the service of the imperial power. For example, the duty of loyalty to the king, the duty of no right, and so on. In the last ten years of the Qing Dynasty, due to the gradual transformation of the state's political body, and the imperial power to a certain extent. The rights and obligations of civil officials changed to a certain extent. In the civil service rights, the salary system began to move towards modernization because of the gradual change of the state political system. This is mainly embodied in the basic determination of the principle of pay and pay, that is, the official salary system began to be established. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the right content of civil servants was expanded, but it was still too narrow, but the civil rights had not been guaranteed by the system. In the end of the Qing Dynasty, the obligations of civil servants were roughly similar to those of the traditional civil servants in the Qing Dynasty, but some of the obligations had changed greatly. In the modern or ancient times, the rulers of all countries attach great importance to the Qing Dynasty, and the Qing Dynasty is no exception. In the late Qing Dynasty, the state institutions were divided into three types of legislation, administration and judicature in the form of at least in the form of the state. Therefore, the system of examination and supervision of civil officials in the late Qing Dynasty also showed new characteristics in theory. In addition, the system of the supervision of civil officials, such as the quasi representative organs and the judicial administrative organs, is still in existence. It is no exaggeration to say that the system of examination and supervision of the traditional civil service in the Qing Dynasty has begun to be "qualitative change" to the end of the Qing Dynasty. This "qualitative change" can be reflected in the civil service examination. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, there were many changes in the reward and punishment system of civil officials in the Qing Dynasty. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, with the reform of the civil service system, the civil service award system was also changed on the basis of adhering to the tradition. In the last ten years of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing government formally promulgated the articles of association according to the advice of the courtiers. From this, the system of medals from the West was formally "landed" in the ancient Chinese Empire. In the Qing Dynasty, the punishment of civil servants was divided into two main categories: administrative punishment and judicial punishment. In the late Qing Dynasty, the disciplinary system of civil officials had changed in type, not only retained the existing administrative punishment and judicial disciplinary system, but also appeared the embryonic form of modern civil service punishment system such as rectified, appeals, administrative litigation and so on. The reference system for the reform of the system is the modern western civil service system. The direct purpose of the Qing court to transplant modern western civil service system is to make up for the defects of its own traditional civil service system, and then to realize the subjective desire to absorb the advanced and unified legal system. But in the process of changing the traditional civil service system, the Qing court also deliberately retained some traditional texts. The official system is standardized and the purpose of the reservation is to maintain the "noumenon". In general, the reform of the late Qing civil service system belongs to the category of modern civil service. In the few remaining legacy, the main achievements of the reform of the civil service system at the end of the Qing Dynasty, on the basis of profit and loss, were inherited by successive governments of the Republic of China. The reform of the civil service system at the end of the Qing Dynasty has both successes and lessons. When we look back and summarize the reform of the civil service system at the end of the Qing Dynasty, we can find that there are many aspects worthy of reflection, but there are still many "resources" for the present people to absorb and draw lessons from.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：蘇州大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2016
【分類號】：D691.4
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本文編號：1978614