春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型研究
發(fā)布時(shí)間：2018-08-23 10:19
【摘要】： 春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期處在中國(guó)歷史上承前啟后的重要時(shí)期，因?yàn)橥ㄟ^(guò)春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期中國(guó)完成了社會(huì)的轉(zhuǎn)型。在此之前中國(guó)社會(huì)仍然是血緣社會(huì)，在此之后雖然仍有濃重的血緣色彩，但轉(zhuǎn)向了地緣社會(huì)；在此之前是封建諸侯、貴族分權(quán)的時(shí)代，在此之后是專制獨(dú)裁、皇帝集權(quán)的時(shí)代。這個(gè)轉(zhuǎn)型的結(jié)果雖然早已成為歷史事實(shí)，并通過(guò)歷史將這個(gè)事實(shí)轉(zhuǎn)化為中華民族的最終選擇，但這種選擇模式由此成為中國(guó)文化的深層內(nèi)核，而且通過(guò)文化的因循性對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)社會(huì)有著潛移默化的影響。中國(guó)自夏朝以來(lái)的四千年歷史可以分為前后兩大階段，春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期就是這兩大階段之間的轉(zhuǎn)型時(shí)期。 周天子授民授疆土，建立了封邦建國(guó)的血緣宗法政治體系。但從另一側(cè)面上說(shuō)，正是這種封邦建國(guó)的政權(quán)構(gòu)成形式成為破壞血緣宗法制度的因素。各級(jí)貴族宗主為了賦稅增值、擴(kuò)大征兵而爭(zhēng)奪人民，不斷破壞支撐宗法制度的血緣體系，開(kāi)始實(shí)行編戶齊民政策，從而導(dǎo)致血緣宗法制度崩潰，地緣郡縣政治確立，最后形成中央集權(quán)制度，春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期是這一變化的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)過(guò)程。 政府編戶的目的是要有效地掌握人口，編戶的基礎(chǔ)在于人民身份的齊等。造成編戶的因素相當(dāng)復(fù)雜，賦稅之增值、封建之崩潰皆有關(guān)聯(lián)，但其中最主要的動(dòng)機(jī)就是擴(kuò)大征兵。這一變革的步伐自春秋中晚期以后逐漸開(kāi)始并日益加速，到戰(zhàn)國(guó)以后，編戶齊民逐漸成為中央政府的新基礎(chǔ)。相對(duì)于血緣宗法封邦建國(guó)的權(quán)力分散制度來(lái)說(shuō)，戰(zhàn)國(guó)七雄中央政府的特色是集權(quán)，已具備秦漢統(tǒng)一政府的雛型和基礎(chǔ)。 就政治學(xué)的角度而言，地緣集權(quán)政治存在的主要條件有三個(gè)：第一，國(guó)家政府、而非貴族宗主，直接掌握全國(guó)人力資源；第二，國(guó)家通過(guò)直接向勞動(dòng)者征收實(shí)物地租、而非接受各級(jí)宗主的層層貢獻(xiàn)，控制全國(guó)財(cái)稅資源；第三，國(guó)家統(tǒng)治者、而非血緣宗法的最大宗子，擁有國(guó)家的最高法權(quán)。 法權(quán)是名分上的承認(rèn)，承認(rèn)國(guó)君所代表的政府是統(tǒng)治者，廣大的人民群眾是被統(tǒng)治者。而政府存在的實(shí)質(zhì)，主要在于人口和財(cái)稅，而財(cái)稅又以土地和人口為本，故《大學(xué)》曰：“有德此有人，有人此有土，有土此有財(cái)，有財(cái)此有用。”因此，由國(guó)家直接控制人口和財(cái)稅的編戶齊民措施才成為推動(dòng)春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型的根本因素。 以地緣形式組織社會(huì)，以國(guó)家的力量直接控制民力，這種與傳統(tǒng)血緣體系完全不同的社會(huì)組織方法最早開(kāi)始于齊國(guó)。管仲相齊“叁其國(guó)而伍其鄙”、“作內(nèi)政而寄軍令”、“定民之居，成民之事”，所謂“士就閑燕、工就官府、商就市井、農(nóng)就田野”的分居方法，本身就是對(duì)血緣族居傳統(tǒng)的顛覆，也是對(duì)新型社會(huì)組織的探索。因此管仲治齊實(shí)際上是春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型在制度上的開(kāi)始。 《左傳·僖公十五年》記載的晉國(guó)“作州兵”，乃是指擴(kuò)張征兵的范圍，使得原本不服兵役的野人也同國(guó)人一樣開(kāi)始服兵役。五十年后，即公元前590年，魯國(guó)“作丘甲”，也走上兵力擴(kuò)張的道路。公元前538年，鄭簡(jiǎn)公二十八年，即魯國(guó)“作丘甲”五十二年之后，鄭國(guó)“作丘賦”。以上具有代表性的改革，不僅在法律上確立了軍事上全民皆兵的責(zé)任，而且也是政治上由血緣宗法走向地緣郡縣的必由之路。 作為地緣政治社會(huì)典型代表的郡縣制度開(kāi)始于春秋中后期，其發(fā)展過(guò)程經(jīng)歷了“縣鄙”之縣、“縣邑”之縣和“縣制”之縣三個(gè)階段。西周以及春秋前期的縣屬于“縣鄙”之縣，僅僅是一種區(qū)域性范圍的名稱，而非地域性的組織。春秋中晚期到戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)代縣發(fā)展到“縣邑”之縣，已經(jīng)形成一種地域性的組織，并且已經(jīng)具備了作為一級(jí)地方政府的某些方面的職能。戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)代，縣的形式發(fā)展到“郡縣”之縣，，完全形成一級(jí)地方組織，成為新的君主集權(quán)國(guó)家的政權(quán)基礎(chǔ)。 中央集權(quán)制是指國(guó)家政權(quán)全部集中于中央政府，而各級(jí)地方政府只能根據(jù)中央政府的指令辦事。其主要特征有：第一、中央嚴(yán)格控制地方，不允許有相對(duì)獨(dú)立的行政體系存在，地方政府在政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、軍事和文化上，必須嚴(yán)格地服從中央政府的政令。第二，作為對(duì)中央控制地方制度的輔助，在官吏任免上重視對(duì)地方官員的任用和監(jiān)督，地方官員的任用、升遷和調(diào)動(dòng)，皆由中央決定。第三，地方向中央政權(quán)負(fù)責(zé)，絕對(duì)執(zhí)行下級(jí)服從上級(jí)、地方服從中央的原則，無(wú)限制地將權(quán)力高度集于中央。 西周土地制度是以原始血緣宗法組織做為指導(dǎo)原則，表現(xiàn)為血緣貴族的宗族土地所有制。具體采取了在封建內(nèi)部逐級(jí)分割所有的方式，即全部土地的最高所有權(quán)屬于周王，所謂“溥天之下，莫非王土”，這些土地又通過(guò)逐級(jí)分封的辦法，由各級(jí)貴族世襲占有，從而使各級(jí)貴族具有了實(shí)際上土地的部分所有權(quán)。 從春秋前期開(kāi)始，各國(guó)紛紛嘗試著新的土地管理形式和人口控制方式，以期達(dá)到富國(guó)強(qiáng)兵的目的。具體表現(xiàn)為齊國(guó)的“相地而衰征”、晉國(guó)的“作爰田”以及魯國(guó)的“初稅畝”。形成于戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)代的國(guó)家授田制度，是建立在編戶齊民基礎(chǔ)之上的新型土地管理形式，其典型代表是魏國(guó)的李悝變法和秦國(guó)的商鞅變法以后所形成的土地制度。 在政治體制和經(jīng)濟(jì)體制發(fā)生變化的同時(shí)，隨著血緣宗法社會(huì)的破壞，知識(shí)階層逐漸從貴族中分離出來(lái)，嘗試著成為獨(dú)立的階級(jí)，并努力承擔(dān)著道統(tǒng)傳承的責(zé)任；當(dāng)?shù)鼐壵紊鐣?huì)的形成以后，知識(shí)階層又努力向著政統(tǒng)靠攏，逐漸喪失了原本就極為有限的獨(dú)立地位，轉(zhuǎn)而追求內(nèi)心的道德完善，也逐漸喪失了監(jiān)督政統(tǒng)的責(zé)任，客觀上促使了古代君主專制政體的形成。 雖然春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)代轉(zhuǎn)型前后社會(huì)性質(zhì)的差異是主要的，但并不是說(shuō)二者之間沒(méi)有聯(lián)系，恰恰相反，由于文化的因循，轉(zhuǎn)型以后的地緣社會(huì)仍然保留了大量的血緣因素。作為中華文化鼎盛時(shí)期之一的百家爭(zhēng)鳴，既建立了值得后世追尋和仰慕的優(yōu)秀文化品質(zhì)，同時(shí)也失落了某些積極的東西。所以，我們不僅要回顧春秋戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)期社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型之后的地緣政治體制，還要回顧社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型之前的血緣宗法體制。
[Abstract]:The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were an important period in Chinese history, because China completed the social transformation through the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The result of this transformation has long been a historical fact and has been transformed into the ultimate choice of the Chinese nation through history, but this mode of choice has thus become the deep core of Chinese culture, and has a subtle influence on the real society through the cultural order. China's 4000-year history since the Xia Dynasty can be divided into two stages, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are the transitional periods between the two stages.
Zhou Tianzi granted land to the people and established the patriarchal clan system of the feudal state. On the other hand, it was the constitution of the feudal state that undermined the patriarchal clan system. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this change was realized concretely.
The purpose of the government's household editor is to master the population effectively. The basis of the household editor lies in the equality of the people's identities. Since then, the central government has gradually become a new foundation for the editorial households and the people. Compared with the power decentralization system of the patriarchal feudal state, the central government of the seven heroes in the Warring States Period is characterized by centralization of power, which has the embryonic form and foundation of the unified government of Qin and Han Dynasties.
From the political point of view, there are three main conditions for the existence of geocentralism: first, the state government, not the aristocratic lords, directly grasps the human resources of the whole country; second, the state controls the national financial and taxation resources by levying real rent directly to the laborers, rather than accepting the contributions of different levels of lords; third, the state rulers, The largest ancestor of the blood clan system has the highest legal power of the state.
The essence of the existence of the government lies mainly in population and taxation, and the fiscal and taxation are based on land and population. Therefore, the University said, "There are people with virtue, there are people with land, there are people with land, there are people with wealth, there is wealth with wealth, there is wealth with useful." Only when the household directly controlled the population and finance and taxation, did the measure of uniting the household and the people become the fundamental factor to promote the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.
Guan Zhong's method of organizing society in a geographic form and directly controlling the people's power with the power of the state, which is totally different from the traditional blood system, began in Qi State. Guan Zhongzhi's separation from the countryside is in itself a subversion of the tradition of consanguinity and clan residence and an exploration of new social organizations.
Fifty years later, that is, in 590 B.C., the State of Lu "made Qiujia" and embarked on the road of military expansion. In 538 B.C., the State of Zheng Jianjia 28 years, that is, the State of Lu "made Qiujia". Fifty-two years later, Zheng Guo "made Qiu Fu". The above representative reforms not only established the military responsibility of all the people, but also the only way from blood patriarchal clan to geo-county in politics.
As a typical representative of geopolitical society, the county system began in the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period, and its development process experienced three stages: the county of "county despicable", "county of county" and "county system". The County of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period belonged to the county of "county despicable". It was only a regional name, not a regional organization. From the mid-late Warring States Period to the Warring States Period, the county developed into the county of "county" and had formed a regional organization, and had already possessed some functions as a local government.
Centralization refers to the centralization of state power in the central government, whereas local governments at all levels can only act according to the instructions of the central government. Second, as a supplement to the local system controlled by the central government, the appointment and supervision of local officials, the appointment, promotion and transfer of local officials are decided by the central government. Third, the local authorities are responsible to the central government, absolutely execute the principle of subordinating the lower levels to the higher levels, subordinating the local authorities to the central authorities, and unrestrainedly exerting a high degree of power. Centrally located.
The land system of the Western Zhou Dynasty took the primitive patriarchal clan system as the guiding principle and was represented by the patriarchal land ownership of the aristocratic clan. By the aristocracy of all levels of hereditary possession, so that aristocrats at all levels have the actual part of the land ownership.
Since the early Spring and Autumn Period, many countries have tried new forms of land management and population control in order to achieve the goal of enriching the country and strengthening the army. The typical representative of the new form of land management is the land system formed after the Li Xin Reform of Wei and Shang Yang Reform of Qin.
While the political and economic systems have changed, with the destruction of patriarchal clan society, the intellectuals have gradually separated from the aristocracy, trying to become an independent class, and striving to assume the responsibility of inheritance of the Taoist tradition; after the formation of the geopolitical society, the intellectuals have tried to close to the political system and gradually lost the original. The very limited independent status, and the pursuit of inner moral perfection, also gradually lost the responsibility of supervising the political system, objectively promoted the formation of ancient autocratic monarchy.
Although the difference of social nature between the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period is the main one, it does not mean that there is no connection between the two. On the contrary, due to the cultural reasons, the geo-society after the transformation still retains a large number of blood factors. So we should not only look back on the geopolitical system after the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period, but also the patriarchal clan system before the social transformation.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：陜西師范大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級(jí)別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2006
【分類號(hào)】：K225
本文編號(hào)：2198760
[Abstract]:The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were an important period in Chinese history, because China completed the social transformation through the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The result of this transformation has long been a historical fact and has been transformed into the ultimate choice of the Chinese nation through history, but this mode of choice has thus become the deep core of Chinese culture, and has a subtle influence on the real society through the cultural order. China's 4000-year history since the Xia Dynasty can be divided into two stages, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are the transitional periods between the two stages.
Zhou Tianzi granted land to the people and established the patriarchal clan system of the feudal state. On the other hand, it was the constitution of the feudal state that undermined the patriarchal clan system. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, this change was realized concretely.
The purpose of the government's household editor is to master the population effectively. The basis of the household editor lies in the equality of the people's identities. Since then, the central government has gradually become a new foundation for the editorial households and the people. Compared with the power decentralization system of the patriarchal feudal state, the central government of the seven heroes in the Warring States Period is characterized by centralization of power, which has the embryonic form and foundation of the unified government of Qin and Han Dynasties.
From the political point of view, there are three main conditions for the existence of geocentralism: first, the state government, not the aristocratic lords, directly grasps the human resources of the whole country; second, the state controls the national financial and taxation resources by levying real rent directly to the laborers, rather than accepting the contributions of different levels of lords; third, the state rulers, The largest ancestor of the blood clan system has the highest legal power of the state.
The essence of the existence of the government lies mainly in population and taxation, and the fiscal and taxation are based on land and population. Therefore, the University said, "There are people with virtue, there are people with land, there are people with land, there are people with wealth, there is wealth with wealth, there is wealth with useful." Only when the household directly controlled the population and finance and taxation, did the measure of uniting the household and the people become the fundamental factor to promote the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.
Guan Zhong's method of organizing society in a geographic form and directly controlling the people's power with the power of the state, which is totally different from the traditional blood system, began in Qi State. Guan Zhongzhi's separation from the countryside is in itself a subversion of the tradition of consanguinity and clan residence and an exploration of new social organizations.
Fifty years later, that is, in 590 B.C., the State of Lu "made Qiujia" and embarked on the road of military expansion. In 538 B.C., the State of Zheng Jianjia 28 years, that is, the State of Lu "made Qiujia". Fifty-two years later, Zheng Guo "made Qiu Fu". The above representative reforms not only established the military responsibility of all the people, but also the only way from blood patriarchal clan to geo-county in politics.
As a typical representative of geopolitical society, the county system began in the middle and late Spring and Autumn Period, and its development process experienced three stages: the county of "county despicable", "county of county" and "county system". The County of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period belonged to the county of "county despicable". It was only a regional name, not a regional organization. From the mid-late Warring States Period to the Warring States Period, the county developed into the county of "county" and had formed a regional organization, and had already possessed some functions as a local government.
Centralization refers to the centralization of state power in the central government, whereas local governments at all levels can only act according to the instructions of the central government. Second, as a supplement to the local system controlled by the central government, the appointment and supervision of local officials, the appointment, promotion and transfer of local officials are decided by the central government. Third, the local authorities are responsible to the central government, absolutely execute the principle of subordinating the lower levels to the higher levels, subordinating the local authorities to the central authorities, and unrestrainedly exerting a high degree of power. Centrally located.
The land system of the Western Zhou Dynasty took the primitive patriarchal clan system as the guiding principle and was represented by the patriarchal land ownership of the aristocratic clan. By the aristocracy of all levels of hereditary possession, so that aristocrats at all levels have the actual part of the land ownership.
Since the early Spring and Autumn Period, many countries have tried new forms of land management and population control in order to achieve the goal of enriching the country and strengthening the army. The typical representative of the new form of land management is the land system formed after the Li Xin Reform of Wei and Shang Yang Reform of Qin.
While the political and economic systems have changed, with the destruction of patriarchal clan society, the intellectuals have gradually separated from the aristocracy, trying to become an independent class, and striving to assume the responsibility of inheritance of the Taoist tradition; after the formation of the geopolitical society, the intellectuals have tried to close to the political system and gradually lost the original. The very limited independent status, and the pursuit of inner moral perfection, also gradually lost the responsibility of supervising the political system, objectively promoted the formation of ancient autocratic monarchy.
Although the difference of social nature between the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period is the main one, it does not mean that there is no connection between the two. On the contrary, due to the cultural reasons, the geo-society after the transformation still retains a large number of blood factors. So we should not only look back on the geopolitical system after the social transformation in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period, but also the patriarchal clan system before the social transformation.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：陜西師范大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級(jí)別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2006
【分類號(hào)】：K225
【引證文獻(xiàn)】
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