本文選題：康乾時期 + 中西交流��； 參考：《遼寧師范大學(xué)》2009年碩士論文

【摘要】： 18世紀(jì),歐洲社會在經(jīng)濟及文化領(lǐng)域已然發(fā)生了巨變。而同一時期的中國正處在康乾盛世之中,清朝統(tǒng)治者不斷加強對海外貿(mào)易的限制。西方使團則紛紛來華以謀求商貿(mào)特權(quán),除英國以外基本都遵行了“三跪九叩”的覲見禮儀。天主教傳教士從明朝中期就開始進(jìn)入中國傳教�！袄敻]規(guī)矩”成為西方傳教士在中國傳教的基本方式。 中國禮儀之爭的焦點是對中國傳統(tǒng)儒家禮儀性質(zhì)的界定。利瑪竇把中國的祭祖祀孔禮儀解釋為世俗性的。這種解釋的權(quán)宜性引發(fā)了耶穌會內(nèi)部及耶穌會與天主教其它修會之間關(guān)于“中國禮儀”的爭執(zhí)。此時西方教廷對“中國禮儀”持謹(jǐn)慎態(tài)度。但當(dāng)康熙帝在1700年以贊成中國傳統(tǒng)禮儀的態(tài)度介入禮儀之爭后,禮儀之爭開始變成羅馬天主教神權(quán)與中國君權(quán)之間的政治交鋒。羅馬教廷于1704年發(fā)布禁絕中國禮儀的教諭,并派遣鐸羅主教來華傳達(dá)教諭及將中國教區(qū)直接收歸教廷管轄。1706年12月17日,康熙帝下達(dá)了驅(qū)逐令和領(lǐng)票令。至此中西禮儀之爭完全演變成為羅馬天主教教皇與中國皇帝之間對中國天主教控制權(quán)的爭奪。當(dāng)教廷使節(jié)嘉樂來華(于1720年11月27日抵京),重申其前述兩點要求時;康熙皇帝采取強硬態(tài)度和措施,禁止西洋人在中國傳教。西方有“政教分離”的思想而中國則相反,故而此次中西“禮儀之爭”的本質(zhì)是天主教神權(quán)和中國君權(quán)之間的權(quán)力爭奪戰(zhàn)。 馬戛爾尼使華時拒行“三跪九叩”之禮,引發(fā)了中英“覲見禮儀之爭”。“覲見禮儀之爭”的背后是中英“外交觀念”的不同。盛清時期的中國在處理對外關(guān)系時,只存在朝貢制度一種模式。故而清王朝必然會主觀地把英國歸入朝貢體系之中。而英國則有“平等外交”觀念,并在使華時處處強調(diào)這種觀念。中英“覲見禮儀之爭”的本質(zhì)是中國和英國如何建構(gòu)彼此的關(guān)系,即雙方是按照朝貢體系的尊卑原則來建構(gòu)中英之間的關(guān)系,還是按照西方的“平等外交”來相互交往。同時英國使團的商業(yè)使命與中國既定貿(mào)易秩序之間的矛盾,亦是當(dāng)時中英之間的重要沖突。 就“禮儀之爭”對當(dāng)時中國傳統(tǒng)社會的影響來說。西方對中國“禮制”的沖擊會動搖中國原有的政治秩序。并且此時的中西文化交流并未給中國帶來近代化的主要元素。更有甚者,禮儀之爭后西方對華印象的逐漸改變?yōu)槠浒l(fā)動對華戰(zhàn)爭提供了借口。 清朝統(tǒng)治者在處理中西關(guān)系的過程中,逐漸認(rèn)識到了西方勢力的威脅,故而對其嚴(yán)加防范;這正是其維護(hù)統(tǒng)治的需求,而不是“保守自大”的表現(xiàn)。實際上,中國和西方都認(rèn)識到了雙方在禮儀風(fēng)俗上的不同,即便是西方人對禮儀之爭亦有不同的理解。那么造成中西沖突的根源就并不僅僅是文化差異。文化沖突僅僅是權(quán)利爭奪的屏障和借口。故此,“禮儀之爭”所產(chǎn)生的后果及其責(zé)任似不應(yīng)簡單歸咎于清朝統(tǒng)治者。
[Abstract]:In the 18 th century, European society has undergone great changes in the economic and cultural fields.At the same time, China was in the prosperous period of Kang and Qian dynasties, and the rulers of the Qing Dynasty strengthened their restrictions on overseas trade.Western missions have come to China in search of trade privileges, except Britain, they have followed the ritual of "three kneeling and nine kowtows".Catholic missionaries began to preach in China from the mid Ming Dynasty.Matteo Ricci rules became the basic way for Western missionaries to preach in China.The focus of the debate on Chinese etiquette is the definition of the nature of Chinese traditional Confucian etiquette.Matteo Ricci interpreted the ritual of sacrificing the ancestors of China as secular.The expediency of this interpretation led to disputes within the Jesuits and between the Jesuits and other Catholics about Chinese etiquette.At this time, the Western Holy see on the "Chinese etiquette" a cautious attitude.But when Emperor Kangxi intervened in politeness in 1700 in favor of Chinese traditional etiquette, the controversy began to become a political confrontation between Roman Catholic theocracy and Chinese monarchy.The Holy see issued an oracle banning Chinese etiquette in 1704, and sent the Bishop of Doruo to China to deliver the oracle and bring the Chinese diocese directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy see. On December 17, 1706, Emperor Kangxi issued an expulsion order and a vote order.So far, the dispute between Chinese and Western etiquette has completely evolved into a struggle between the Roman Catholic Pope and the Chinese emperor for the control of Chinese Catholicism.When Jiale Laihua, the Holy see envoy (arrived in Beijing on November 27, 1720, reiterated his two demands), Emperor Kangxi took a hard line and took measures to ban westerners from preaching in China.The west has the idea of "separation of state and religion" while China has the opposite. Therefore, the essence of the "etiquette dispute" between China and the West is the power struggle between the Catholic theocracy and the Chinese monarchy.Machaerney refused to practice the ceremony of "three kneeling and nine kowtows", which triggered the "debate on the etiquette of the audience" between China and Britain.Behind the controversy of audience etiquette is the difference between Chinese and British diplomatic concepts.There was only one mode of tributary system in dealing with foreign relations in the prosperous Qing Dynasty.Therefore, the Qing Dynasty will subjectively bring Britain into the tributary system.Britain, on the other hand, has the concept of "equal diplomacy", which is emphasized everywhere in China.The essence of the Sino-British "debate on etiquette of audience" is how to construct the relationship between China and Britain, that is, whether the two sides should construct the relationship between China and Britain according to the principle of the tributary system, or according to the "equal diplomacy" of the West.At the same time, the conflict between the British Mission's business mission and China's established trade order was also an important conflict between China and Britain at that time.In terms of the impact of the debate on etiquette on the traditional Chinese society at that time.The impact of the West on China's "etiquette" will destabilize China's original political order.And the cultural exchange between China and the West at this time did not bring China the main elements of modernization.Moreover, the gradual change of Western impression of China after the etiquette dispute provided an excuse for it to wage war against China.In the process of dealing with the relations between China and the West, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty gradually realized the threat of the Western forces and took strict precautions against them, which was the demand of their maintenance of the rule, not the expression of "conservative arrogance".In fact, both China and the West recognize the differences in etiquette and customs, and even Westerners have different understandings of etiquette disputes.Then the root of the conflict between China and the West is not just cultural differences.Cultural conflict is merely a barrier and excuse for the struggle for power.Therefore, the consequences and responsibilities of the politeness dispute should not be simply attributed to the rulers of the Qing Dynasty.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：遼寧師范大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級別】：碩士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2009
【分類號】：K249

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