【摘要】：生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)是人類從生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中獲得的各種惠益。人類福祉的提高依賴于多種生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的可持續(xù)供給。人類活動通過改變土地覆蓋土地利用類型,建造人工設(shè)施,強化養(yǎng)分輸入,引入或消除物種等手段,在直接改變生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)供給量級的同時,也改變著生態(tài)系統(tǒng)各服務(wù)項之間的關(guān)系。生態(tài)服務(wù)項之間的關(guān)系主要體現(xiàn)在服務(wù)項權(quán)衡(相悖變化)或協(xié)同(相向變化)的變化。生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)(以下簡稱生態(tài)服務(wù)或服務(wù))間的權(quán)衡是指一項服務(wù)的提高以其他服務(wù)的降低為代價,例如提高供給服務(wù)如食物和木材通常導(dǎo)致其他調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)的降低。協(xié)同是指多項服務(wù)供給的同時提高,例如生物多樣性的提高也提高了咖啡的產(chǎn)量和品質(zhì)。理解生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)服務(wù)之間關(guān)系,是對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)進行科學(xué)管理從而獲得大量且可持續(xù)的生態(tài)服務(wù)的前提。隨著全球城市化進程,人類福祉的提高越來越依賴于由人工設(shè)施所構(gòu)成的人類主導(dǎo)的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)或人工生態(tài)系統(tǒng)所提供的服務(wù)。盡管大量用人工設(shè)計系統(tǒng)去替代自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)是不可接受的,但是在日益擁擠和城市化的世界中,人工生態(tài)系統(tǒng)必將成為未來可持續(xù)世界的一部分。人工系統(tǒng)中的服務(wù)項與自然生態(tài)系統(tǒng)有所不同,往往是目的服務(wù)(如糧食產(chǎn)量)較強,從而強化與其他服務(wù)項的權(quán)衡。例如農(nóng)田的擴張,往往導(dǎo)致森林和草地面積的減少,從而降低生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)。有些學(xué)者把人工生態(tài)系統(tǒng)間接利用自然資本形成的服務(wù)稱為非生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)(社會經(jīng)濟服務(wù)),由于界限并不清楚,大部分學(xué)者沒有明確區(qū)分,本文仍統(tǒng)稱為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)。生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的形成與供給可以發(fā)生在多個的尺度上,對于生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)評估而言,幾乎不存在某一理想尺度能夠滿足評估目的全部要求,并且,尺度間的推移(scaling)往往是非線性的。因此,從多尺度探討生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系,對于闡明生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系及其影響因素具有重要的理論和實踐意義。本文以城市化程度高(建成區(qū)占國土面積比例)的長三角地區(qū)和城市化程度低的內(nèi)蒙古自治區(qū)為研究案例,研究不同城市化水平和空間尺度上生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系。這兩個區(qū)域不同的城市化強度為研究社會經(jīng)濟和自然因素對生態(tài)服務(wù)空間分布的影響提供了良好的研究對象。本研究依據(jù)兩個研究區(qū)域生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的特點分別選擇了在當(dāng)?shù)剌^為重要的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)項,涵蓋了供給、調(diào)節(jié)和文化服務(wù)三類,并在這兩個研究區(qū)域分別設(shè)置了地級市(包含全部轄區(qū))和縣兩個尺度,同一區(qū)域兩個尺度上的服務(wù)項相同。根據(jù)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的空間分布識別出了服務(wù)集(bundles),探索了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的空間分布規(guī)律和服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系,分析了城市化程度對服務(wù)間關(guān)系的影響以及不同空間尺度上生態(tài)服務(wù)關(guān)系的異同,探討了自然條件與社會經(jīng)濟因素對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)關(guān)系變化的驅(qū)動。主要研究結(jié)果如下：(1)高度城市化的長三角地區(qū)12項生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)中,在地級市尺度上有7項表現(xiàn)為空間集聚分布(糧食、茶葉、淡水供給、碳固存、土壤保持、涵養(yǎng)水源和森林游憩)、5項表現(xiàn)為空間隨機分布(畜產(chǎn)品、水產(chǎn)品、工業(yè)產(chǎn)品、旅游人次和高等教育服務(wù))；而在縣級尺度上只有1項表現(xiàn)為隨機分布(高等教育服務(wù)),其他服務(wù)項全部為集聚分布。在城市化程度低的內(nèi)蒙古的8項生態(tài)服務(wù)中,在地級市尺度上有3項生態(tài)服務(wù)為空間集聚分布(羊肉、牧草產(chǎn)量和調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)),其余5項為隨機分布(糧食、豬肉、牛肉、淡水供給和旅游服務(wù))；在縣級尺度上也只有1項為隨機分布(旅游服務(wù)),其他服務(wù)項為集聚分布。通過與他人的研究進行對比分析,本文發(fā)現(xiàn)隨研究尺度的縮小生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集聚性增加。所有依賴土地面積的生態(tài)服務(wù)(大部分的供給服務(wù)和全部的調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù))幾乎全部表現(xiàn)出空間集聚的分布模式,而非土地依賴的服務(wù)(工業(yè)產(chǎn)品和文化服務(wù)等)則傾向于表現(xiàn)隨機分布模式。這表明人工系統(tǒng)對技術(shù)進步的依賴,使得供給服務(wù)對自然稟賦的依賴逐漸降低,而由于調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)主要依賴于自然植被,仍表現(xiàn)出對自然資源的依賴。(2)對研究區(qū)域所選擇的服務(wù)項兩兩成對進行相關(guān)分析,結(jié)果顯示長三角地區(qū)所有66對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)在地級市尺度上有31對表現(xiàn)出顯著相關(guān),其中12對為權(quán)衡(主要發(fā)生在供給服務(wù)與其他服務(wù)之間)、19對為協(xié)同(主要發(fā)生在調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)之間)；在縣級尺度上有47對表現(xiàn)出顯著相關(guān),其中25對為權(quán)衡(主要發(fā)生在調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與糧食、畜產(chǎn)品及工業(yè)產(chǎn)品之間)、22對為協(xié)同(主要發(fā)生在調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與淡水供給之間)。內(nèi)蒙古地區(qū)所有28對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)在地級市尺度上有4對表現(xiàn)出顯著相關(guān),全部為協(xié)同(糧食與豬肉、牛肉；調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與淡水供給、牧草之間)；在縣級尺度上有13對表現(xiàn)出顯著相關(guān),其中4對為權(quán)衡(主要發(fā)生在牧草產(chǎn)量與其他供給服務(wù)之間)、9對為協(xié)同(主要發(fā)生在供給糧食與畜產(chǎn)品之間)。綜合本文結(jié)果與他人的研究,本文發(fā)現(xiàn)隨著研究尺度的增大(從鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)、縣、到城鄉(xiāng)復(fù)合系統(tǒng)),生態(tài)服務(wù)間權(quán)衡變少而協(xié)同變多。這是由于更大單元土地面積有可能夠承載更多種類的生態(tài)服務(wù),而其中對土地依賴較小的服務(wù)能夠與其他服務(wù)在空間上重疊,從而發(fā)生生態(tài)位互補,即生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中多種服務(wù)主體(服務(wù)提供者,如農(nóng)田)可以更充分利用資源從而產(chǎn)生比單項服務(wù)更高的生產(chǎn)力。(3)同一研究區(qū)域中,兩個尺度上生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系可能表現(xiàn)的完全不同。內(nèi)蒙古縣級尺度上的牧草產(chǎn)量與糧食產(chǎn)量表現(xiàn)出權(quán)衡關(guān)系,而在地級市尺度上這兩項服務(wù)并沒有顯著關(guān)系。此外,在縣級尺度上內(nèi)蒙古的調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與牧草產(chǎn)量沒有顯著關(guān)系,而在地級市尺度上這兩項服務(wù)表現(xiàn)出顯著的協(xié)同。這種地級市尺度上生態(tài)服務(wù)間權(quán)衡更少而協(xié)同更多的趨勢印證了在土地釋放(land sparing)的策略比土地共享(land sharing)更適合。盡管從較小尺度上來看,土地釋放會導(dǎo)致生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)間的權(quán)衡,然而通過高強度管理提高單位面積上產(chǎn)品供給能力,以較少量集約化強度高的土地,釋放出一些生產(chǎn)用地用于提供調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)和文化服務(wù),從更大的尺度上來看實際上是促進了生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)間的協(xié)同。在內(nèi)蒙古發(fā)展集約化養(yǎng)殖業(yè)就是land sparing,在提高單位土地面積上的經(jīng)濟收入同時減輕對天然草場的壓力。相比養(yǎng)豬而言,草食家畜養(yǎng)殖與糧食生產(chǎn)存在互補效應(yīng),因為草食家畜可以利用糧食生產(chǎn)過程產(chǎn)生的秸稈等。(4)城市化程度高的地區(qū)中生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)間關(guān)系表現(xiàn)出更多的權(quán)衡,而在城市化程度較低的地區(qū)服務(wù)之間關(guān)系表現(xiàn)出更多的協(xié)同,這是由于經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展導(dǎo)致自然的改造和干擾較為強烈,人工生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的提高強化了服務(wù)間的權(quán)衡。而在城市化強度較低的地區(qū),對自然的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的改造所產(chǎn)生的影響還處于較低水平。(5)在不同城市化強度的地區(qū),有些生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系表現(xiàn)的完全相反,例如調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與糧食生產(chǎn)之間在長三角地區(qū)檢測出了的權(quán)衡關(guān)系,而在內(nèi)蒙古地區(qū)則是協(xié)同關(guān)系；有些生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系表現(xiàn)一致,例如,本文在兩個區(qū)域與兩個尺度中均發(fā)現(xiàn)糧食產(chǎn)量與畜產(chǎn)品之間、調(diào)節(jié)服務(wù)與淡水供給之間存在協(xié)同關(guān)系,這些協(xié)同關(guān)系在其他地區(qū)的研究也被證實。這表明了服務(wù)間關(guān)系的復(fù)雜性。生態(tài)服務(wù)間直接的相互作用、空間不兼容或社會反饋等多種機制都有可能導(dǎo)致服務(wù)間的權(quán)衡或協(xié)同。只有開展不同景觀和不同尺度下的實證研究并且識別生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)相互作用的路徑,才有可能在管理上進行可行的干預(yù)。(6)為了進一步探討自然條件和管理模式對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)的影響,本研究在內(nèi)蒙古縣級尺度上按照牧區(qū)、半牧區(qū)和非牧區(qū)將所有的旗縣劃分為三個空間子集,分別研究其中的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)關(guān)系并進行比較。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)這三個分區(qū)中對土地依賴的服務(wù)(牧草產(chǎn)量、糧食產(chǎn)量)之間始終為權(quán)衡；從牧區(qū)到半牧區(qū)再到非牧區(qū),羊肉供給服務(wù)與牧草產(chǎn)量之間的關(guān)系由協(xié)同轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)闄?quán)衡,而羊肉供給與糧食產(chǎn)量的關(guān)系則從不相關(guān)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)閰f(xié)同；降水的增加會強化農(nóng)田與草地之間的競爭,這由于水是內(nèi)蒙古地區(qū)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的限制因子。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)表明,生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的協(xié)同或權(quán)衡關(guān)系并不是固定的,在不同的自然條件和管理模式下生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間可能出現(xiàn)截然相反的關(guān)系,而理解生態(tài)服務(wù)間關(guān)系能幫助確定管理生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的杠桿點,從而提高生態(tài)系統(tǒng)管理的指向性。(7)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)之間的關(guān)系不僅體現(xiàn)在兩兩之間的權(quán)衡或協(xié)同,還表現(xiàn)在一組生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)在空間表現(xiàn)上的一致性。應(yīng)用生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集研究框架,按照生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)在空間上的分布,本文在長三角地級市尺度上檢測到了4類生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集,分別為平原城市集、山地城市集,海島城市集和大型城市集；在縣級尺度上,同樣檢測到了類似的4類生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集,分別為山區(qū)服務(wù)集、海島服務(wù)集、城區(qū)服務(wù)集和平原服務(wù)集,并且這些服務(wù)集與地級市尺度上服務(wù)集表現(xiàn)出一致的空間分布趨勢。在地級市尺度上生態(tài)內(nèi)蒙古自治區(qū)的12個城市通過聚類分析被分為4類生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集,分別為草原區(qū)城市集、森林區(qū)城市集、農(nóng)業(yè)區(qū)城市集和荒漠區(qū)城市集；而在縣級尺度上,89個旗縣被分為5類生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集(農(nóng)業(yè)養(yǎng)殖服務(wù)集、旅游服務(wù)集、集約養(yǎng)殖服務(wù)集、森林服務(wù)集和草地服務(wù)集)。將這兩個區(qū)域在兩個尺度上分別獲得的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)進行疊加分析,兩個尺度上的服務(wù)集在空間上存在著明顯的對應(yīng)關(guān)系。本文兩個研究區(qū)域在地級市和縣兩個尺度上形成的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集均表現(xiàn)為空間集聚分布,以往前人的多項研究獲得的服務(wù)集在鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)、縣以及國家尺度也均為集聚分布,綜合這些工作,我們發(fā)現(xiàn)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集的空間集聚性是與尺度無關(guān)的(scale-independent)。(8)本文發(fā)現(xiàn)地級市與縣兩個尺度上生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集的相似性,不僅體現(xiàn)在空間分布上的對應(yīng),也體現(xiàn)在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集的驅(qū)動機制也相似。聚類和主成分分析表明在城市化程度高的地區(qū),社會經(jīng)濟因素是生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集形成的主要驅(qū)動,而在城市化程度低的地區(qū),自然條件是生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集形成的主要驅(qū)動�？梢酝茰y,隨著中國和全球經(jīng)濟水平的提高,許多地方生態(tài)系統(tǒng)服務(wù)集的主要驅(qū)動力將由社會經(jīng)濟因素主導(dǎo)。
[Abstract]:The improvement of human welfare depends on the sustainable supply of a variety of ecosystem services. Human activities directly change ecosystem services by changing land cover types, building artificial facilities, strengthening nutrient input, introducing or eliminating species, etc. The relationship between ecosystem services is mainly reflected in the trade-offs (contrary changes) or synergistic changes (opposite changes). The trade-offs between ecosystem services (hereinafter referred to as ecological services or services) refer to the improvement of one service and the decrease of other services. Collaboration refers to the simultaneous enhancement of multiple services, such as increased biodiversity, which also increases the yield and quality of coffee. Quantitative and sustainable ecosystem services. As global urbanization progresses, the improvement of human well-being is increasingly dependent on services provided by human-dominated ecosystems or artificial ecosystems made up of man-made facilities. In a crowded and urbanized world, artificial ecosystems are bound to become part of a sustainable world in the future. Unlike natural ecosystems, services in artificial systems tend to be stronger for the purpose (e.g. food production), thus strengthening trade-offs with other services. For example, the expansion of farmland tends to reduce the area of forests and grasslands. Some scholars call the services formed by the indirect use of natural capital by artificial ecosystems as non-ecosystem services (socio-economic services). Because the boundaries are not clear, most scholars do not clearly distinguish between them. This paper is still collectively called ecosystem services. For ecosystem services assessment, there is hardly any ideal scale that can satisfy all the requirements of assessment purposes, and scaling between scales is often nonlinear. This paper takes the Yangtze River Delta region with high urbanization degree and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region with low urbanization degree as research cases to study the relationship between different urbanization level and spatial scale of ecosystem services. Cultural intensity provides a good research object for studying the impact of socio-economic and natural factors on the spatial distribution of ecological services. According to the characteristics of the two regional ecosystems, this study selected the more important local ecosystem services, covering three types of supply, regulation and cultural services, and in these two research areas. According to the spatial distribution of ecosystem services, the bundles are identified, the spatial distribution of ecosystem services and the relationship between them are explored, and the relationship between urbanization degree and services is analyzed. The main results are as follows: (1) Among the 12 ecosystem services in the highly urbanized Yangtze River Delta region, 7 of them show spatial agglomeration and distribution (grain,grain)at the city level. Tea, freshwater supply, carbon sequestration, soil conservation, water conservation and forest recreation, 5 items were randomly distributed in space (livestock products, aquatic products, industrial products, tourists and higher education services), while only one item was randomly distributed at the county level (higher education services), and all other items were clustered. Of the 8 eco-services in Inner Mongolia, 3 were spatial agglomeration distribution (mutton, forage yield and regulation services) at the prefectural and municipal scales, the other 5 were random distribution (grain, pork, beef, fresh water supply and tourism services), and only one was random distribution (tourism services) at the county scale, while the other was set. By comparing with other studies, this paper finds that the agglomeration of ecosystem services increases with the reduction of research scale. Almost all land-dependent ecosystem services (most of the supply services and all the regulation services) show spatial agglomeration distribution patterns, not land-dependent services (industrial products). The results show that the dependence of artificial systems on technological progress has gradually reduced the dependence of supply services on natural endowments, while the dependence of regulatory services on natural resources is still apparent because they mainly depend on natural vegetation. Correlation analysis showed that 31 pairs of all 66 pairs of ecosystem services in the Yangtze River Delta region were significantly correlated at the prefectural and municipal scales, among which 12 pairs were trade-offs (mainly between supply services and other services), 19 pairs were coordination (mainly between regulatory services), and 47 pairs were significantly correlated at the county scale. Among them, 25 pairs (mainly between regulation services and grain, livestock products and industrial products) and 22 pairs (mainly between regulation services and freshwater supply). All 28 pairs of ecosystem services in Inner Mongolia showed significant correlation at the prefectural and municipal levels, all of which were coordination (grain and pork, beef; regulation clothing). There were 13 pairs of significant correlations at the county level, of which 4 pairs were trade-offs (mainly between forage yield and other supply services) and 9 pairs were synergies (mainly between food and livestock products). From villages and towns, counties, to urban-rural complex systems, there is less trade-off and more synergy between ecological services. This is because larger unit land area may be able to carry more types of ecological services, and services that rely less on land can overlap with other services in space, resulting in niche complementarity, i.e. multiple services in the ecosystem. Subjects (service providers, such as farmland) can make full use of resources to produce higher productivity than individual services. (3) In the same study area, the relationship between ecosystem services at the two scales may be completely different. There was no significant correlation between the two services on the scale. Moreover, there was no significant correlation between the regulation services and forage yield at the county level, but there was significant synergy between the two services at the prefecture level. Parng's strategy is more appropriate than land sharing. Although land release leads to trade-offs between ecosystem services on a smaller scale, high-intensity management improves product supply per unit area, releasing some productive land for regulatory services and provision of high-intensity land in smaller quantities. Cultural services, on a larger scale, actually promote synergies between ecosystem services. Developing intensive aquaculture in Inner Mongolia is called land sparing, which increases the economic income per unit area of land while reducing the pressure on natural grasslands. (4) The relationship between ecosystem services in highly urbanized areas shows more trade-offs, while the relationship between services in less urbanized areas shows more synergy, which is due to the natural transformation and disturbance caused by economic development. The improvement of artificial ecosystem services strengthens the trade-off between services. However, in areas with low urbanization intensity, the impact of natural ecosystem transformation is still at a low level. (5) In areas with different urbanization intensity, the relationship between some ecosystem services is completely opposite, such as regulating services and grain. In the Yangtze River Delta, the balance of food production was detected, while in Inner Mongolia, there was synergy; some ecosystem services showed the same relationship. For example, in both regions and two scales, we found that there was synergy between food production and livestock products, and between regulation services and freshwater supply. Collaboration has also been confirmed in other areas. This indicates the complexity of the relationship between services. Direct interactions between ecological services, spatial incompatibility or social feedback and other mechanisms may lead to trade-offs or synergies between services. Only empirical studies on different landscapes and scales are conducted to identify ecosystems. In order to further explore the impact of natural conditions and management patterns on ecosystem services, this study divided all the counties into three spatial subsets according to pastoral, semi-pastoral and non-pastoral scales in Inner Mongolia. It is found that there is always a trade-off between land-dependent services (forage yield, grain yield) in these three zones; from pasture to semi-pasture to non-pasture, the relationship between mutton supply and forage yield changes from synergy to trade-off, while the relationship between mutton supply and grain yield never changes. These findings suggest that synergies or trade-offs between ecosystem services are not fixed and may emerge between ecosystem services under different natural conditions and management models. Understanding the relationship between ecosystem services can help to determine the leverage point of ecosystem management and improve the directivity of ecosystem management. (7) The relationship between ecosystem services is not only reflected in the trade-off or synergy between the two, but also in the consistency of the spatial performance of a set of ecosystem services. According to the spatial distribution of ecosystem services, four types of ecosystem services have been detected in the Yangtze River Delta at prefecture-level cities, namely, plain-level cities, mountain-level cities, island-level cities and large-scale cities, and similar four types of ecosystem services have been detected at County-level cities. Sets are mountain Service set, Island service set, urban service set and plain service set respectively, and these service sets have the same spatial distribution trend with the service sets at the municipal level. Urban agglomeration, forest area urban agglomeration, agricultural area urban agglomeration and desert area urban agglomeration; and at County level, 89 counties are divided into five types of ecosystem service sets (agricultural aquaculture service set, tourism service set, intensive aquaculture service set, forest service set and grassland service set). The service overlay analysis shows that there is an obvious spatial correspondence between the service sets on two scales. The two research areas in this paper are on the ground.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：浙江大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2015
【分類號】：Q143

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本文編號：2195727